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Ancient Byzantine hallmarks
The control or inspection of precious metals was an ancient concept of examination and marking, by means of inspection stamps (punch marks). The use of hallmarks, at first on silver, has a long history dating back to the 4th century AD—there is evidence of silver bars marked under authority of the Emperor Augustinian around AD 350—and represents the oldest known form of consumer protection. A series or system of five marks has been found on Byzantine silver dating from this period, though their interpretation is still not completely resolved.
Late Middle Ages
From the Late Middle Ages, hallmarking was administered by local governments through authorized assayers. These assayers examined precious metal objects, under the auspices of the state, before the object could be offered for public sale. By the age of the craft guilds, the authorized examiner’s mark was the “master’s mark”, which consisted frequently of his initials and/or the coat of arms of the goldsmith or silversmith. At one time, there was no distinction between silversmiths and goldsmiths, who were all referred to as orfèvres, the French word for goldsmith. The master craftsman was responsible for the quality of the work that left his atelier or workshop, regardless of who made the item. Hence the responsibility mark is still known today in French as le poinçon de maître literally “the maker’s punch”. In this period, fineness was more or less standardized in the major European nations (writ: France and England) at 20 karats for gold and 12 to 13 lots (75% to 81%) for silver, but the standards could only be partly enforced, owing to the lack of precise analytical tools and techniques.
France
Hallmarking is Europe’s earliest form of consumer protection. Modern hallmarking in Europe appears first in France, with the Goldsmiths Statute of 1260 promulgated under Étienne Boileau, Provost of Paris, for King Louis IX. A standard for silver was thus established. In 1275, King Philip III prescribed, by royal decree, the mark for use on silver works, along with specific punches for each community’s smiths. In 1313, his successor, Philippe IV “the Fair” expanded the use of hallmarks to gold works.
England
In 1300 King Edward I of England enacted a statute requiring that all silver articles must meet the sterling silver standard (92.5% pure silver) and must be assayed in this regard by ‘guardians of the craft’ who would then mark the item with a leopard’s head. In 1327 King Edward III of England granted a charter to the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths (more commonly known as the Goldsmiths’ Company), marking the beginning of the company’s formal existence. This entity was headquartered in London at Goldsmiths’ Hall, from whence the English term “hallmark” is derived. (In the UK the use of the term “hallmark” was first recorded in this sense in 1721 and in the more general sense as a “mark of quality” in 1864.)
Switzerland
In 1424, the French cardinal Jean de Brogny, after consulting a council of eight Master Goldsmiths from Geneva, enacted a regulation on the purity and hallmarking of silver objects (following the French standards) for application in Geneva. Although gold was used for articles, the regulation was silent on standards and hallmarking for gold. In Switzerland today, only precious metal watch cases must be hallmarked. The hallmarking of other items including silverware and jewelry is optional.
Augmentations in France and England
A set of hallmarks on an English silver spoon. From left to right, the maker’s mark of George Unite, the date letter (1889), the Birmingham Assay Office mark, the lion passant and the monarch’s head tax-mark
- In 1355, individual maker marks were introduced in France. This concept was later mirrored in England in 1363, adding accountability to the two systems.
- In 1427, the date letter system was established in France, allowing the accurate dating of any hallmarked piece.
- In 1478, the Assay Office was established in Goldsmiths’ Hall. At this time, the date letter system was introduced in England. This was originally intended to be the mark of an official known as the Assay Master, who was sworn in every May. After being sworn in, the letter would advance to the next in the alphabet, regardless of whether the same individual continued to hold the post, so it came to be regarded simply as a date letter.
- In 1544 a lion passant was added to English marks, to bring the number up to four.
- In 1697, a higher standard of silver, known as the Britannia standard (95.83%, i.e. 23/24ths silver) was made compulsory in Great Britain to protect the new coinage which was being melted down by silversmiths for the silver. The Sterling standard (92.5%) was restored in 1720.
- In 1784, the United Kingdom began charging a tax on silverware, and a further mark was added to indicate this had been paid. The mark was the monarch’s head and continued to be used until 1890, when the tax was abolished.